Oh that I might capture the essence of this deep midwinter night
And fold it softly into the waft of a spring-moon quilt,
Then fondly uncoil it the night my beloved returns. – Hwang Jini
Sex work is so stigmatized, slandered and hidden in modern Western society that it is difficult for most modern Westerners to comprehend just how normal it was in pre-industrial societies, and how woven into the fabric of those societies. Nowadays we are wont to draw sharp lines between prostitutes, mistresses, girlfriends, actresses, dancers, masseuses and other groups of women, but for most of human history the distinctions between various types of non-wives from whom men could obtain sex were blurry at best. Consider that courtesans such as the Madame de Pompadour and Jane Shore were still considered harlots despite the fact that all their liaisons were long-term and their total lifetime count of sex partners was lower than most modern women (who would be extremely offended to be called whores) rack up before graduating from university; also remember that working-class women from Roman times until well into the 20th century often supplemented their meager earnings by selling sex on the side, and you’ll begin to understand why the idea of the prostitute as a specific, “fallen” kind of woman only dates to the 19th century (and seems so ridiculous to those who know anything about it). That’s why modern assertions that certain historical types of women (such as geisha) were “not prostitutes” are so absurd and wrongheaded; even if these women did not openly advertise and sell sex to a large number of clients, there is no doubt that compensated sex was on the menu for at least some clients, and that in Christian Europe they absolutely would have been classified as whores.
The kisaeng of feudal Korea are a case in point. Though some authorities insist that they were definitely not prostitutes, or that only the lowest of the three classes of kisaeng were, or that only some did that job, the distinction simply isn’t a useful one. Whether a given woman took money for sex or not was wholly immaterial to her status; that was always cheonmin, the lowest caste of Korean society except for the baekjeong (untouchables). The cheonmin included members of all “unclean” professions including butchers, entertainers, jailers, metalworkers, prostitutes, shamans, shoemakers and sorcerers; they were not all slaves, but slaves were drawn from this caste. Kisaeng were technically slaves, and after 1650 they were all owned by the government; due to their high degree of training they were treated much better than ordinary slaves, but they were still owned by the state, and the price of freedom was so high it could only be paid by wealthy men (if such a man wanted one as a concubine).
There were three ways a girl could become a kisaeng: she could be born to a kisaeng mother (since caste was hereditary), sold to a kisaeng house by parents who could not afford to raise her, or drop out of the upper classes due to some unforgiveable breach of the complex and rigid Korean social rules. Training started young (as early as eight) and their careers were extremely short: they usually began active duty about 15, peaked about 17, and retired by age 22. During the Joseon Dynasty (1392-1897) this was codified into law; they were forced to retire from entertainment duties (including prostitution, singing and such) by 30, though they could continue working at non-entertainment tasks until 50. Like the geisha of Japan, kisaeng were trained in poetry, music, dance, art, conversation and the like; in fact, one particular poetic form (the sijo) came to be associated with them, and some famous examples are basically advertisements intended to entice gentlemen to buy their sexual services. But some kisaeng were also trained in needlework and medicine; since Korean doctors were not permitted to see noblewomen naked, their examination and hands-on treatment was the province of medical kisaeng under the direction of a doctor. The haengsu, highest of the three tiers of kisaeng, were in charge of training after they retired; those of the two lower tiers who were not taken as concubines generally retired by working as seamstresses, food preparers, tavern keepers or the like. Though some kisaeng became wealthy enough to support themselves, this did not happen nearly as frequently as among European courtesans.
Korean society was strict and regimented at every level, and the kisaeng were no exception; they were registered and forced to report twice a month to a bureaucrat called the hojang to ensure that they could not flee servitude without soon being missed. Their day-to-day affairs, however, (including disputes with clients) were supervised by the haengsu. Prior to the ascent of the Joseon Dynasty this was much looser, but the Joseons were Confucian and thus deeply enamored of hierarchy and regimentation. For the first two centuries of Joseon rule there were frequent calls for the abolition of the kisaeng, but wiser heads always prevailed because it was understood that without sex workers, officials would be much more likely to satisfy their extramarital urges with other men’s wives. The subjugation of all kisaeng to strict government control was thus a compromise with those who imagined society could do without whores, just as modern legalization schemes are. After 1650 some kisaeng were assigned to a specific government office; these were called gwan-gi, and though officeholders were strictly forbidden from having sex with them, in practice they were usually expected and often forced to provide sex to these bureaucrats (because some things never change). Many kisaeng who were not bound directly to government service had a gibu, or boyfriend; he got sex and companionship in exchange for protection, presents and economic support. Most gibu were lesser officials, military officers or the like, and though they had no legal status they sometimes became very possessive and pimpish; there were even cases in which they got into fights with their girlfriends’ clients, though obviously this was considered extremely rude and might result in the kisaeng breaking off the relationship. Over time gibu became more popular, and by the beginning of the 19th century it was rare to find a kisaeng without one.
Throughout the late 19th century, Korea was destabilized by interference from China, Japan, France, the UK and the US. The Sino-Japanese War (1894-95) resulted in increased Japanese dominance over Korea, and one of the reforms the Japanese encouraged was the abolition of the entire class system, including slavery. This technically freed the kisaeng, but (as so often happens when slaves are freed en masse by decree), many of them continued in servitude for the rest of their lives, but without the legal protections of their former status. Some went to work as what Westerners typically think of as prostitutes, and today the term kisaeng is sometimes used to mean a whore who specifically caters to foreigners. There are a few of the traditional houses still left, but since most of the songs, dances and such were passed down by oral tradition, they have been lost forever. Idealized kisaeng appear frequently in South Korean historical fiction (much as the geisha do in Japan), but North Korea’s communist government is so hostile to prostitution that it labels all descendents of kisaeng (of whom there are a sizeable number, since Pyongyang was once home to the greatest kisaeng school) as having “tainted blood”.
Unfortunately, courtesan denial is not rare nowadays; those who insist that sex workers of historical times were somehow fundamentally different from their modern descendants reveal not only a pathological aversion to human sexuality and a deep misunderstanding of human nature, but also an appalling ignorance of the truth about selling sex in any era. Courtesans throughout history would laugh at anyone who claimed that education automatically removed a woman from whoredom; the many who were talented singers, poets and writers would likewise ridicule the notion that artistic training somehow disqualified her from harlotry. They, the kisaeng, and modern hookers all know what so many pathetic moderns deny: a person is not what she does to make money, no matter how much repressive governments want to pretend she is.
Fascinating stuff! I learn something from you nearly every day, Maggie.
A rule that has served me well over the years: Anyone who is ever described (usually in a defensive tone of voice) as “not technically a prostitute”
…is a prostitute. 😉
An excellent rule, and completely true.
Great piece.
It should be added, that is was actually the US Army, which did away with traditional kisaeng, after the Korean War. American GI’s had no way with Korean music and poetry, as was to be expected, so service was stripped to the bare essentials. Tragically of course, it’s exactly the same nation, which over the past couple of years has been pushing to have regular prostitution (in its wide range of local varieties) be persecuted in South Korea.
Other than that, there have been at least two famous kisaeng in Korean history. One is Non’gae, who is a national hero for having pushed a Japanese general from a cliff during one of the Japanese invasions towards the end of the 16th century. I don’t think, there are many Koreans who do not know her name. The other is Hwang Jin-I, (about 1506-1544), who is considered to be one of the greatest poets in Korean literature.
Oh, it’s only now I saw you quote Hwang Jini…
Anyway, a great movie on Korean prostitution is Im Kwon-Taek’s Ticket (1986). Im Kwon-Taek can be regarded as the godfather of Korean cinema, and this one film is about the life in a teahouse, which covers as a brothel (as is not uncommon outside Seoul). In the final analysis it’s actually about the hypocrisy of Korean men towards the women, working there. Yet, the women carry away the victory!
Though http://www.koreafilm.org/feature/100_76.asp is tinged with patriarchy talk, it does offer a nice breakdown of the synopsis.
The brothel covers as a teahouse, of course….
“Sex work is so stigmatized, slandered and hidden in modern Western society that it is difficult for most modern Westerners to comprehend just how normal it was in pre-industrial societies, and how woven into the fabric of those societies.”
Yes, I remember how surprised I was when I first read that in the 1800s every town of any size in America had its brothel, and those too small to support a brothel had a widow woman or two in a house who would provide sex for money, and it was no big deal. Not exactly legal, but well known to everybody in town. And that the saloons in the Old West were generally brothels as well, once again, not a big deal. Basically, all of the US was once Nevada, then that weird cloak of suffocating Victorian morality descended and that was that.
(Sometimes you get weird outliers — there’s an old TV western called “Gunsmoke” in which the Long Branch Saloon was the center of Dodge City’s social life, and it was CLEARLY a brothel as well, in fact, one of the primary characters on the show was Miss Kitty, who was the madam of the Long Branch saloon’s brothel, and the favorite of the star of the show, Mashall Dillon. She was portrayed as a strong and worthwhile sort of woman. I have no idea how that managed to get past the censors in a time before Barbara Eden was unable to display her navel in “I Dream of Jeannie” except of course it was never made explicit what Miss Kitty and the girls did other than dance with the customers and chat with them.)
Let’s not forget also – that Miss Kitty and Marshal Dillon had a “thing” for each other. It was never really explored in an intimate way – but you could tell by the way the huge-ass Dillon would always seek out this sexy, sultry kitten for advice on how to run the town.
That’s how it got by the censors. You’d have to connect some dots in your mind in order to reach the conclusion that these happy hot girls were selling sex! They were actually “played up” as being fairly “wholesome”. Which was the cool thing I think. When I was a little boy, who knew nothing of sex – I loved this show and had no clue they were hookers. It wasn’t until years later – when I learned about sex – that I understood what they actually did, and I remember when the “epiphany” came – it made me grin!
My house was always FULL of these kinds of shows when I was growing up. Big shows with Big Men who showed a lot of courage and always saved the day. James Arness (he was 6’7″ and a World War II hero who was severely wounded in battle in Italy); John Wayne (he was 6’4″); Chuck Connors (6’6″ – a former Brooklyn Dodger and Chicago Cub – big time friends with Soviet Premier Brezhnev – and his show “The Rifleman” was the only American show allowed on Soviet Television at the time). It would be hard to overstate what an impact these men had on me growing up.
The reason given for Matt Dillon and Miss Kitty’s always forbidden love was the old super hero motto of “we can’t be together because one of my many enemies would try to hurt you.” I don’t remember which episode that was from but Matt actually said it to Miss Kitty.
It’s interesting how comic book super heros have moved beyond that cuteness to more realistic portrayals. Somebody’s tights are coming off!
The radio show, which ran from the 1952 to 1961, made the situation much more clear in many ways. I listened to it when I was a kid, and it was apparent even to me then. Part of the reason may have been Georgia Ellis’ great voice acting as Miss Kitty. But the relationship between Matt Dillon and Miss Kitty in the radio series really made the conclusion more clear over time.
Those radio Gunsmoke episodes stood head and shoulders above most radio drama of the time, with edgy plots and characters, subtle sound effects, and excellent production values generally. I can’t recommend them highly enough.
The problem I have in getting excited about these women – and so many other “prostitutes” of ancient Asia – is that they were often boxed into the lowest caste.
As a Westerner, I abhor the caste system. Yes, you can argue that we practice an “opaque” form of caste system in the west – based on wealth – but we do know it’s possible to change “caste” here, and it really wasn’t in the rigid castes of Asia. This is one of the reasons I consider Western Civilization to be superior to Asian Civilization and almost any other. In fact – if you look at the point in which the old Korean caste system ended – it’s downfall pretty much coincides with the period of time that Koreans were becoming MOST exposed to Western culture. So apparently I’m not the only who thinks Western Civilization got it right here. 😉
I’d say the prohibitionists are relegating sex-workers into the the lowest caste as well: below human, unable to think for themselves. And they exploit them as shills or cheap labor every time they can get their hands on them (and they make sure they never get out of that caste, as well).
That’s really not the definition of a caste though – we can always find some downtrodden people and say it’s the same thing – but it’s not. Caste system, you couldn’t get out of it – not even if you changed jobs – and, of course – you were placed into it at birth. Birth to death – didn’t matter how smart you were – you were stuck. Can’t say that about sex workers – plenty of them are richer than I am.
Well, they’re trying, but fortunately not succeeding, maybe because the West is so against castes. What we have is less rigid, because it’s possible to gain wealth with hard work, but it’s much harder to do than maintaining inherited wealth, because of how capitalism works.
This was a great read, and very educational! I’d never head of kisaeng before. Now I am going to research them online!
Thanks!
Yes, prostitutes in America are considered to be of the lowest social caste: criminals. And also the lowest moral caste: perverts.
We here, for the most part, consider prostitutes to be something more akin to a “tradesman” or “merchant” class, and it’ll be a great day when the law recognizes them as such.
For instance, I’ve stated that I’d be happy to see a legally recognized whore-client confidentiality privilege, just like priest-parishioner, doctor-patient, and lawyer-client.
[…] by her so-called “betters”. This is why it was not unusual in pre-industrial cultures for a disgraced upper-class woman to turn to sex work; once she had fallen from her elevated station, taking money for sex did no more harm. But once […]
Not perfect. Anyways, your column inspired this.
Poetic Justice
Her gifts are garbaged to wreteched wonders
common nobles with seething sex…
The THUS in ordinary woes
as performing mannequin.
Love is alien to her heart.
Hence, men are prey. Sijo: her bait.
Enjoy